The Council of Nicea and the Arian Controversy

The Arian controversy (not to be confused with the Indo-Europeans known as Aryans) was a discourse that occurred in the Christian church of the 4th century CE, that threatened to upend the meaning of the church itself. The Christian church, like the Judaic church before it, was committed to monotheism: all the Abrahamic religions say there is only one God. Arius (256–336 CE), a fairly obscure scholar and presbyter at Alexandria and originally from Libya, is said to have argued that the incarnation of Jesus Christ threatened that monotheistic status of the Christian church, because he was not of the same substance as God, instead a creature made by God and so capable of vice. The Council of Nicea was called, in part, to resolve this issue. The Council of Nicea The first council of Nicea (Nicaea) was the first ecumenical council of the Christian church, and it lasted between May and August, 325 CE. It was held in Nicea, Bithynia (in Anatolia, modern Turkey), and a total of 318 bishops attended, according to the records of the bishop at Nicea, Athanasius (bishop from 328–273). The number 318 is a symbolic number for the Abrahamic religions: basically, there would be one participant at Nicea to represent each of the members of the Biblical Abrahams household. The Nicean council had three goals: to resolve the Melitian controversy—which was over the readmission to the Church of lapsed Christians,to establish how to calculate the date of Easter each year, andto settle matters stirred up by Arius, the presbyter at Alexandria. Athanasius (296–373 CE) was an important fourth-century Christian theologian and one of the eight great Doctors of the Church. He was also the major, albeit polemical and biased, contemporary source we have on the beliefs of Arius and his followers. Athanasius interpretation was followed by the later Church historians Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret. Church Councils When Christianity took hold in the Roman Empire, the doctrine had yet to be fixed. A council is an assembly of theologians and church dignitaries called together to discuss the doctrine of the church. There have been 21 councils of what became the Catholic Church—17 of them occurred before 1453). The problems of interpretation (part of the doctrinal issues), emerged when theologians tried to rationally explain the simultaneously divine and human aspects of Christ. This was especially difficult to do without resorting to pagan concepts, in particular having more than one divine being. Once the councils had determined such aspects of doctrine and heresy, as they did in the early councils, they moved on to church hierarchy and behavior. The Arians were not opponents of the orthodox position because orthodoxy had yet to be defined. Opposing Images of God At heart, the controversy in front of the church was how to fit Christ into the religion as a divine figure without disrupting the notion of monotheism. In the 4th century, there were several possible ideas that would account for that. The Sabellians (after the Libyan Sabellius) taught that there was a single entity, the prosÃ… pon, made up of God the Father and Christ the Son.The Trinitarian Church fathers, Bishop Alexander of Alexandria and his deacon, Athanasius, believed there were three persons in one god (Father, Son, Holy Spirit).The Monarchianists believed in only one indivisible being. These included Arius, who was presbyter in Alexandria under the Trinitarian bishop, and Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia (the man who coined the term oecumenical council and who had estimated participation at a substantially lower and more realistic attendance of 250 bishops). When Alexander accused Arius of denying the second and third person of the Godhead, Arius accused Alexander of Sabellian tendencies. Homo Ousion vs. Homoi Ousion The sticking point at the Nicene Council was a concept found nowhere in the Bible: homoousion. According to the concept of homo ousion, Christ the Son was consubstantial—the word is the Roman translation from the Greek, and it means that there was no difference between the Father and the Son. Arius and Eusebius disagreed. Arius thought the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were materially separate from each other, and that the Father created the Son as a separate entity: the argument hinged on the birth of Christ to a human mother. Here is a passage from a letter Arian wrote to Eusebius: (4.) We are not able to listen to these kinds of impieties, even if the heretics threaten us with ten thousand deaths. But what do we say and think and what have we previously taught and do we presently teach? — that the Son is not unbegotten, nor a part of an unbegotten entity in any way, nor from anything in existence, but that he is subsisting in will and intention before time and before the ages, full God, the only-begotten, unchangeable. (5.) Before he was begotten, or created, or defined, or established, he did not exist. For he was not unbegotten. But we are persecuted because we have said the Son has a beginning but God has no beginning. We are persecuted because of that and for saying he came from non-being. But we said this since he is not a portion of God nor of anything in existence. That is why we are persecuted; you know the rest. Arius and his followers, the Arians, believed if the Son were equal to the Father, there would be more than one God: but Christianity had to be a monotheistic religion, and Athanasius believed that by insisting Christ was a separate entity, Arius was taking the church into mythology or worse, polytheism. Further, opposing Trinitarians believed that making Christ a subordinate to God diminished the importance of the Son. Wavering Decision of Constantine At the Nicean council, the Trinitarian bishops prevailed, and the Trinity was established as the core of the Christian church. Emperor Constantine (280–337 CE), who may or may not have been a Christian at the time—Constantine was baptized shortly before he died, but had made Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire by the time of the Nicean council—intervened. The decision of the Trinitarians made Ariuss questions heresy akin to revolt, so Constantine exiled the excommunicated Arius to Illyria (modern Albania). Constantines friend and Arian-sympathizer Eusebius, and a neighboring bishop, Theognis, were also exiled—to Gaul (modern France). In 328, however, Constantine reversed his opinion about the Arian heresy and had both exiled bishops reinstated. At the same time, Arius was recalled from exile. Eusebius eventually withdrew his objection, but still wouldnt sign the statement of faith. Constantines sister and Eusebius worked on the emperor to obtain reinstatement for Arius, and they would have succeeded, if Arius hadnt suddenly died—by poisoning, probably, or, as some prefer to believe, by divine intervention. After Nicea Arianism regained momentum and evolved (becoming popular with some of the tribes that were invading the Roman Empire, like the Visigoths) and survived in some form until the reigns of Gratian and Theodosius, at which time, St. Ambrose (c. 340–397) set to work stamping it out. But the debate by no means was over in the 4th century. Debate continued into the fifth century and beyond, with: ... confrontation between the Alexandrian school, with its allegorical interpretation of scripture and its emphasis on the one nature of the divine Logos made flesh, and the Antiochene school, which favoured a more literal reading of scripture and stressed the two natures in Christ after the union. (Pauline Allen, 2000) Anniversary of the Nicene Creed August 25, 2012, marked the 1687th anniversary of the creation of the upshot of the Council of Nicea, an initially controversial document cataloging the basic beliefs of Christians -- the Nicene Creed. Sources Allen, Pauline. The definition and enforcement of orthodoxy. Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425–600. Eds. Averil Cameron, Bryan Ward-Perkins, and Michael Whitby. Cambridge University Press, 2000.Barnes, T. D. Constantine and the Christians of Persia. The Journal of Roman Studies 75 (1985): 126–36. Print.----. Constantines Prohibition of Pagan Sacrifice. The American Journal of Philology 105.1 (1984): 69–72. Print.Curran, John. Constantine and the Ancient Cults of Rome: The Legal Evidence. Greece and Rome 43.1 (1996): 68–80. Print.Edwards, Mark. The First Council of Nicaea. The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 1: Origins to Constantine. Eds. Young, Frances M. and Margaret M. Mitchell. Vol. 1. Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. 552–67. Print.Grant, Robert M. Religion and Politics at the Council at Nicaea. The Journal of Religion 55.1 (1975): 1–12. Print.Gwynn, David M. The Euseb ians: The Polemic of Athanasius of Alexandria and the Construction of the Arian Controversy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.----. Religious Diversity in Late Antiquity. Archaeology and the ‘Arian Controversy’ in the Fourth Century. Brill, 2010. 229. Print.Hanson, R.P.C. The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318–381. London: TT Clark.Jà ¶rg, Ulrich. Nicaea and the West. Vigiliae Christianae 51.1 (1997): 10–24. Print.

International Drug Trade. . Student’S Name. Institution

International Drug Trade Student’s Name Institution Name Date The world is getting condensed into a global village and this comes with opportunities and challenges. The global economy, for example assumes greater importance to all countries as it affects them in one way or another. While the condensation of the international market has benefited global business partners, it has also been permeated and exploited by unscrupulous tradesmen. For example, the international drug trade has fully optimized this opening and fixed its muscles to create a quenching demand and also created an avenue for supplying. The international drug market is booming with new bases and cartels established perennially. Local and international agencies†¦show more content†¦The situation was further complicated because there was not a particular qualification identified for doctors. Rival medical practitioners would taunt each other over what they termed as â€Å"heroic treatments† and termed professional practitioners as obfuscators and inhumane. Amid thi s confusion, opiates found their way into the market and could be consumed without proper prescriptions. While some professionals opposed the use of opium as medication, some medical documents such as The Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics embraced the use of opium terming it as the most valuable remedy . The confusion and perception of the public with regards to the consumption of drugs is not restricted to the opiates in the US. India has also had to deal with a drug menace because of the people’s perception of drugs. In India, the disharmony in the medical professional led the people to consumption of cocaine. Members of the high class once consumed cocaine for medical reasons. The habit was borne out of a need to relieve pain but soon engulfs the user and they get addicted. Respectable men would also consume cocaine under medical prescriptions to improve virile power. While people would perish as a result of cocaine consumption, especially in the early 1900s in Calcutta, little was known about theShow MoreRelatedAnnotated Bibliography: Plagiarism39529 Words   |  158 PagesHealth Impact: A Basis For Labeling And Licensing Campaigns?. Developing World Bioethics, 12:  121 134. Mackey, T. M. and Liang, B. A. (2012), Promoting global health: utilizing WHO to integrate public health, innovation and intellectual property. Drug Discovery Today, 17(23-24): 1254 1257. Massoud, M. R., Mensah-Abrampah, N., Sax, S., Leatherman, S., Agins, B., Barker, P., Kelley, E., Heiby, J. R. and John Lotherington. (2012), Charting the way forward to better quality health care: how do we getRead MoreEssay about Uop Library Manual7804 Words   |  32 PagesEconomic Data†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦14-17 Balance of Payments Statistics, CountryWatch, Culturegrams, Direction of Trade Statistics, EIU Country Data, EIU Country Intelligence, EIU Market Indicators amp; Forecasts –New!, EIU Viewswire, Euromonitor International, Europa World Plus, Government Financial Statistics, IMF E-Library, International Financial Statistics, National Trade Databank, State of the Nation 7) Encyclopedias and Dictionaries†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...17-20 8) JournalRead MoreInternational Management67196 Words   |  269 PagesThis page intentionally left blank International Management Culture, Strategy, and Behavior Eighth Edition Fred Luthans University of Nebraska–Lincoln Jonathan P. 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David garrick Essay Example For Students

David garrick Essay David Garrick (1716-1779)David Garricks contemporaries felt it would be vanity to describe his acting (Stone and Kahrl 27). Vanity has never stopped Shane Davis from doing anything !David Garrick was considered to be the most influential and skilled actor of his time. Garrick is credited with revolutionizing the portrayal of character. His concept of experiencing the feelings of the character, is a concept that helped lead 18th-century theatre into a new naturalistic era. It was an approach to acting that was directly at odds with the theatrical philosophy prior to Garricks inception (Stone and Kahrl 35). Garricks innovative style known as naturalism, led the extremely popular and successful actor James Quin to remark If this method of Garricks is right, then we are all wrong ( Cole and Chinoly 131). The style that was so admired and later copied by Garricks peers was a combination of naturalism, classical representation of the passions, and exaggerated physicality.Garrick was not t he originator of naturalism ,that distinction is Charles Mackilins, although he is credited with its success. Pure naturalism can be characterized by Macklins instruction of his players to ignore the cadence of tragedy, but simply speak the passage as you would in common life and with more emotional force (Cole and Chinoly 121). The term used to describe this new style of speech is called broken tones of utterance. It is a method of speech which concentrates more on the emotion in a verse rather than its meter. David Garrick was a opportunistic actor who borrowed from many different acting techniques (Stone and Kahrl 345). Garricks naturalism was concerned more with the feeling of true emotion , the uniqueness of character, combined with the physical representation of the passions. Representation of the passions was an accepted artistic convention for expressing emotion.Le Brun, a late 17th-century century artist , wrote a grammar of the passions from Descartes earlier work. In doin g so he gives a formal explanation of the 17th and eventually 18th-century representation of emotion. Le Bruns manual explains that Contempt is expressed by the eyebrows knit and lowering towards the nose, and at the other end very much elevate; the eye very open, and the pupil in the middle; the nostrils drawing upwards; the mouth shut, and the corners somewhat down, and the upper lip thrust out farther than the upper one. (Le Brun) Le Bruns descriptions along with many suggestions of mannerisms which should accompany them were reprinted in the acting manuals of the time.(Stone and Kahrl 28). Garrick was well aware of these manuals and incorporated them into his new style of acting . It was Garricks use of exaggeration when portraying a passion that led many of his peers to label him Englands greatest actor. The thing that set Garrick apart is that he practiced the sympathetic technique of acting that can be attributed to the writer Thomas Heywood (Stone and Kahrl 37). The sympathe tic technique stated that the use of the descriptions of the passions should be varied according to the individual being portrayed (Stone and Kahrl 37). Quins older school of acting made little distinction between a Brutus, a Hamlet, or a Richard III. All of these characters would be portrayed using the universal motions and thus expressing the characters in much the same manner. One of Garricks peers wrote of his versatility saying The thing that strikes me above all others is the variety in your acting, and your being so totally a different man in Lear, from what you are in Richard (Cole and Chinoy 132). It was Garricks use of exaggerated characterization to individualize a character which made him famous. Garricks lively and very physical portrayal of character was noted by many of the great actors of the day. Richard Chamberlin wrote in his memoirs of the time when Garrick met Quin in Rowes The Fair Penitent (1746): But when, after long and eager expectations, I beheld little Ga rrick, young and light, and alive in every muscle and feature, come bounding on the stage, and pointing at the wittol Altamont (Lacy Ryan) and the heavy-paced Horatio (Quin) Heavens, what a transition! It seemed as if a whole century had! Been stepped over in the transition of a single scene (Stone and Kahrl 29). .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79 , .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79 .postImageUrl , .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79 , .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79:hover , .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79:visited , .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79:active { border:0!important; } .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79:active , .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79 .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u529ce25a860435685b5f3402ad300e79:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Judiasm2 Essay We will write a custom essay on David garrick specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now In fact Garricks physical portrayal of comedic or fop characters was so lively, that later in his career he was challenged by unfounded accusations of homosexuality. He was said to be too effeminate in many of his roles, especially as a cross-dressing John Brute in The Provoked Wife. To save his dignity Garrick began to shy away from characters that had blatantly feminine characteristics (Straub 55). Garrick was not famous for having a strong voice.His oral recitation was adequate, but not outstanding. John Hill in essay Understanding, Sensibility, and Fire writes We remember the time when Mr. Garrickran himself so out of voice in some of the first scenes in the character of Pierre in Venice Preserved, that he could not be heard afterwards to that great scene in which he reproaches the senate. And when in Richard III he cried out to Richmond, Richard is hoarse with calling the to battle, the audience was so sensible of the truth of the expression, that they could scarce distinguish t he sounds that conveyed it to them (Cole and Chinoly 130). It is in the tonal quality of the voice that Garrick excelled. His use of broken tones of utterance was an innovation to the theatre world of the 18th-century (Burnim 45). Garrick was often accused by his peers that he had very little understanding of stress and how to use it (Burnim 78). It could have been that it was the excellence of his physicality that drew attention away from his improper use of stress. Garricks vocal style was concerned with the characterization rather than the recitation (Stone and Kahrl 256). Garrick was considered to be the greatest actor of his time largely in part to his ability to individualize the characters he played by combining the philosophies of 17th-century theatre with the innovative method of naturalism. He brought a physicality and characterization to the stage which was unparalleled by any other actor of the day. His exaggerated physical portrayal of character was never overdone and always motivated. Perhaps Garricks most unique innovation was the use of broken tones of utterance to bring a more honest portrayal of character to the stage. A modern day equivalent of Garrick would need the characterization of an Al Pacino combined with the exaggerated physicality of a Jim Carrey. Garricks acting style can be characterized by his versatility, quality of characterization, exaggerated physicality, and the use of broken tones of utterance. BibliographyBurnim, Kalman. David Garrick: Director. University of Pittsburgh Press. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: 1961Cole, Toby and Chinoy,Helen Krich. Actors on Acting. Crown Publishers, Inc.: 1949. Le Brun, Charles. : Method to Learn to Design the Passions. Trans. John Williams. London. 1734Stone, George Winchester and George M. Kahrl. David Garrick: A Critical Biography. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1979. Annotated Knight, Joseph. David Garrick. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, Co., Ltd., 1894Straub, Kristina. Sexual Suspects: 18th Century players and Sexual Ideology. New Jersey. Princeton University press, 1992

Risk Management for International Standard- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theRisk Management for International Standard. Answer: Risk management can be defined as the continuous process that is used to identify and analyze exposures that may result in loss. The exposures identified are then evaluated as to their severity and appropriate mitigation measures taken. The International Risk Management Standard sets out principles that are relevant in the risk management process at different levels of decision making (Marquette University 2017). Arnesen Foster (2016, p.40) state that these include decisions made with regards to policy development, management of contracts, decisions on purchasing and outsourcing of services using matrices of probability and impact. The International Standard sets out steps that may be taken in the process of mitigating the risks and loss (Marquette University 2017). The first step is establishing the goals and loss context considerations. The hazards which are identified are evaluated after being analyzed. These may include financial risks (costs arising from claims and judgments of liability) and strategic risks (changes in management). It may also extend to operational risks (such as labour disruptions) and perimeter risks (changes in political landscape and weather). The hazards are then controlled and monitored regularly and communicated to the stakeholders. Risk management programs or systems (RMS) are centered on the costs associated with risk. The costs associated with risk include losses retained in the form of retentions and deductibles. Net proceeds from insurance and costs allocated for control of loss activities are also included. Costs of administering the program relating to mitigating loss are included as part of the costs of risk (Marquette University 2017). The expenses attached to managing the process of claims also contributes to the overall costs of controlling risk. The totality of the above costs when measured as an aggregate should results in an overall saving for the organization. This is despite some elements of the above showing net increase or decrease in cost individually. Risks Management Systems include all the programs that first seek to understand the nature and organizational impact of the risks identified (Viner 2015). This is followed by programs that incorporate practices and procedures designed to control the different forms of risks identified. This is against the backdrop that desired outcomes will have a higher probability of occurring. This is contrasted with the opposite proposition that negative or potentially undesirable outcomes will have a lower probability of occurring. Traditional systems of safety management incorporate RMS as its main function. RMS is useful for organizations in helping to formulate policies and frameworks to review and measure performance by the management. Some examples of loss exposure in organizations include property, personnel, income and civic/statutory liabilities. Techniques of risk control range from prevention (reduction of the frequency of loss), reduction (reducing severity of the loss) and avoiding activities which result in loss. Techniques which are used to finance risk exposure may include borrowing of funds to cover the risk (Frigo Anderson 2014, p.49). Losses that arise can be retained by the decision of omission or by design. The organization may also make the non-insurance contractual transfer of responsibility for payment of losses. The risk management incorporates both insurable and non-insurable losses. as far as reasonably practicable This concept of being reasonably practicable has several acronyms which essentially mean the same. HSE (2014), states that these are ALARP (as low as reasonably practicable) and SFAIRP (so far as is reasonably practicable). The principle works by weighing the risk exposure against the time, effort and financial resources that are needed to control it. This is in relation to risk which is identified at the work place as part of occupational safety (Makin Winder 2008). For purposes of objectivity, risk is defined as the probability that a hazard will cause adverse effects and the metric that is used to measure it. Hazard can be defined as anything that can result in effects which have adverse outcomes. This may include excessively loud noise which may result in loss of hearing. The use of both terms above is not intended to be prescriptive in controlling risks for business enterprises. The concept proposes to set out goals that can guide the duty-holder in the business in question. This places the onus of interpretation on the business operator to determine what can be considered as practicable reason (HSE 2014). At the same time it allows the latitude of discretion to the duty-holder within the business to make judgment based on good practice. In addition to the good practice, further mitigation measures may also be considered in mitigating the risk. The mitigation of risk should be reasonable within the context of resource expenditure. The costs attendant to reducing the risk should not exceed the benefits of potential outcomes. The application of the principle should be within the parameters of cost and financial resource expenditure and allocation. A hypothetical example will serve to put into context this principle. If organization X places the value of human life at $100,000, it may be willing to spend up to the limit of $200,000 per year in compensating for loss of life. This is against the backdrop of earnings of $1000, 000 per year. If the claims for that year exceed that figure, it may not be worth following the principle as it may impact negatively the operations of the business entity. But when forced by a regulator to compensate, it may have to adjust its base value on human life to a higher figure. This informs the need for a business to use a Cost Benefit Analysis when measuring the risk against the sacrifice needed. There are several limitations in using the concept of practical reasonable in business entities. The first is the limitation of values which are subjective and open to individual interpretation. This may involve issues of ethics and moral standards and involving balance and judgment (Carson 2012, p.396). It also requires significant analysis in order to determine the appropriate range of what is acceptable with regards to cost and benefit. What is considered as industry good practice may not be universally applied to each business as each case will have its peculiarities. The last limitation is that the principle requires trade-offs between mitigating the risk exposure and mitigation (HSE 2014). Risks that are reduced to the level of being reasonably practical will not entirely eliminate risks within the business entity. Risk management tool The event chain methodology is a component level risk management tool used to manage risks in projects (Loosemore et al.2006). It can be used as an analysis technique for work schedules in a project and as a tool to model the visual uncertainties in the project. It can be used for risk assessment and management at the same time in ensuing quality outcomes in projects (Martin 2012). The basic assumption of this tool is that unplanned for events will inevitably occur in projects despite planning well in advance. The tool then sets out to identify and manage and this events which may trigger others into a chain. The tool focuses on managing the events within the project and not the totality of the process as being continuous. There are six principles that underpin this tool as propounded below. The first principle states that activities are the original planned activity is known as the ground state. Excited states result when there are events which change the ground state. Events which resulted in excited states may carry negative and positive outcomes within projects (Intaver Institute 2017). The second principle posits that an event may trigger chains of events which may affect the project. The third principle is the use of tables and diagrams to show all the possible events individually within a project. The fourth principle is known as the Monte Carlo Schedule Risk Analysis. The analysis uses simulations which use the probabilities and impacts of events as the input data. The fifth principle identifies the critical events and chains that pose the greatest danger in negatively impacting the project. These are visualized using a sensitivity chart (Intaver Institute 2017). Critical events and chains can then be used to perform a check on reality. The sixth principle states that the measurement of performance in project is based on several factors. Probability of events occurring is dependent on the subjective judgment of the manager in charge of the project. Project buffers are included within the project in order to ensure that the project stays on course as originally planned. Event chain methodology is a useful tool in risk management for software projects which contain multiple and varied uncertainties and is collaborative in nature (Mohatashami et al, 2006, p. 20).This is useful for software projects which are large and originate from government and large corporations. The tool creates project schedules that are based on estimates of the best-case scenario. Events and chains of events are defined with their probable impact on the project. This is in relation to resource allocation and timelines. The major limitation of this tool is the focus on identified events as threats. Some events can actually have positive and beneficial outcomes on the project. The other limitation is the use of analysis which may not be practical for the project. sources of failure Sources of failure within business entities can be classified as managerial, hardware, software and human failures. Failures resulting from management deficiencies are as the result of barriers in management in decision making (Haimes 2009). Corrective action which is preventive may not be taken even when the hazard has been identified and reported. This may be an organizational culture deficiency within the organization that is exhibited in matters that deal with risk management. Hardware failures are as the result of shortcomings in the design and maintenance of hardware within the business entity. There could also be a mismatch in resource allocation for hardware purchase and task allocation. Software failures are evident in the practicality of loops of control and incidences of malware attacks which compromise the system. The compromised software system will affect all areas of operation within the business. The human error is a causal factor in most incidences that result in accidents. The human error is mostly caused by poor judgment caused by a variety of factors. These include fatigue, stress, drug and alcohol misuse and workload (Haimes 2009). The individual attitudes towards risk also contribute towards causing the human error which ends up in causing failures at the workplace. This is manifested as mistakes, lapses and slips while working. The company chosen for analysis with regards to policy, procedures and systems is BP global. The policy position on safety and risk management is No accidents, No harm to people and No change to the environment (BP 2017). This applies to all employees and contractors working with BP in order achieve zero injuries, accident and harm to the environment. The procedures spelt out in its document on procedures include administrative and emergency plans of action. There are also procedures on electrical installations, safety, handling waste and special materials. The system of risk management and safety, incorporates the internal administration of employees with regards to occupational wellbeing. Different certifications such as the ISO 14001 form part of the BP system. The main loss prevention arrangements for BP are focused on managing loss through oil spills and accident in its areas of operation. These include both offshore and onshore drilling and prospecting sites and the emergency risk communication adopted (Manuel 2014).This begins with tracking safety performance processes. This involves inspections and testing of equipment which is considered as critical to safety. Events on processes of safety on both up and downstream are continuously measured by BP. These are classified into tiers depending on the severity of risk that is posed. Past occurrences that resulted in loss of the primary containment are also measured to identify lags within its operations. BP has appointed a safety expert on safety processes on its downstream operations in order to reduce its losses. Using simulations, safer methods of drilling have been identified that reduce the probability of accidents occurring. Functional expertise is also derived from its global wells organization. The company is also actively implementing the recommendations made as the result of the Bly report which came after the Deepwater Horizon accident (Sustain Case 2017).Independent verification of organizational safety measures is undertaken with an independent consultant. Improved technology on containment and capping has led to processes that are modern and appropriate in tackling these two critical issues. BP has also appointed a process safety monitor within its operations to specifically focus on safety that reduces losses in operational accidents and spills. References Arnesen, DW, Foster, TN 2016, 'PLANNING FOR THE KNOWN, UNKNOWN AND IMPOSSIBLE - RESPONSIBLE RISK MANAGEMENT TO MAXIMIZE ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE', Journal of Business Behavioral Sciences, vol. 28, no. 1, p. 40. BP, 2017, Health, safety and environment requirements, viewed 17 August 2017, https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp-geel/en/GeelSharedDownloads/8_6_Requirements_Health_Security_Safety_Environmental_june2014.pdf Carson, D 2012, 'Reviewing reviews of professionals risk-taking decisions', Journal of Social Welfare Family Law, vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 395-409. Available from: 10.1080/09649069.2012.753729. [17 August 2017]. Frigo, ML, Anderson, RJ 2014, 'RISK MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK: Adapt, Don't Adopt', Strategic Finance, vol. 96, no. 1, p. 49. Haimes, Y, 2009, Risk modeling, assessment, and management, Hoboken: Wiley. HSE, 2014, ALARP at a glance, viewed 17 August 2017, https://www.hse.gov.uk/risk/theory/alarpglance.htm Intaver Institute, 2017, Event chain methodology in project management, viewed 17 August 2017, https://www.intaver.com/Articles/Article_EventChainMethodology.pdf Loosemore M., Rafery J., Reilly C., Higgins D, 2006, Risk Management in Projects, 2nd Edition, Taylor and Francis. Makin, A, Winder C, 2008, A new conceptual framework to improve the application of occupational health and safety management systems, Safety Science Volume 46, Issue 6, July 2008 pp.935 to 948 Manuel, J 2014, 'CRISIS and EMERGENCY RISK COMMUNICATION: Lessons from the Elk River Spill', Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 122, no. 8, pp. A214-A219. Available from: 10.1289/ehp.122-A214. [17 August 2017]. Marquette University, 2017, What is Risk management? viewed 17 August 2017, https://www.marquette.edu/riskunit/riskmanagement/whatis.shtml Martin, DX 2012, 'Risk and the Future of Quality', Journal for Quality Participation, vol. 35, no. 3, p. 9. Mohtashami, M, Marlowe, T, kirova, V, Deek, FP 2006, 'RISK MANAGEMENT FOR COLLABORATIVE SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT', Information Systems Management, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 20-30. Sustain Case, 2017, BP tracks progress in process safety management through leading indicators, to prevent incidents, viewed on 17 August 2017, https://sustaincase.com/case-study-bps-policies-and-measures-for-preventing-and-managing-accidents-and-oil-spills/ Viner, D, 2015, Occupational risk control: predicting and preventing the unwanted, Surrey: Gower.